Energy‐Prediction‐Based Co‐Design and Control of Battery–Fuel‐Cell Hybrid Powertrains for Long‐Range Electric Coach Buses

Concerns over greenhouse gas emissions accelerate the shift to electric buses; yet battery‐electric models often lack the range for long‐haul transport. This paper studies a plug‐in fuel‐cell (FC) hybrid coach bus for a daily 650 km trip. The model integrates detailed FC, battery, and drive‐unit dynamics with battery state‐of‐health (SoH) through capacity fade and resistance growth. Results demonstrate that the plug‐in hybrid reduces consumption by 16.7% compared with a FC‐only bus, whereas the 200 kWh battery provides a 100 kWh usable energy swing under an 85%–35% state of charge (SoC) period. Limiting the C‐rate to 3C sets the minimum size at 190 kWh and confirms that energy, rather than power, determines the battery rating. A total‐cost‐of‐ownership analysis over 12 years indicates that a € 100/kWh reduction in Li‐ion price lowers cost by € 20,000 for the hybrid and by € 100,000 for a battery‐electric bus. Well‐to‐wheel (WTW) emissions show that plug‐in operation cuts greenhouse gases relative to both diesel and FC‐only cases. These results establish a transparent framework for sizing and evaluating hybrid coaches across performance, cost, and emissions.